Introduction
The relations between India and the Middle East date back to centuries. During the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation, India’s trade flourished with ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. The 20th century saw a significant surge in Indian migration towards the Middle East. The oil Boom in the Middle East was the focal point attracting many Indians, particularly from the southern states to take up various mid and low-level jobs in the burgeoning petroleum sector. The past 30 years saw a spurt in the Indian migration towards the Middle East, with UAE, Saudi Arabia and Oman as top destinations.
Economic Interdependence and Strategic Priorities
India’s status as the third-largest consumer of oil and its heavy reliance on energy imports from the Middle East, the Middle Eastern region has become a strategic priority for India. This newfound focus on the region aligns with Saudi Arabia’s interest in diversifying its allies beyond traditional Western partners, coinciding with India’s realisation of its geopolitical and geo-economic interests. As a part of this growing relationship, major oil companies like Saudi Arabia’s ARAMCO and the UAE’s ADNOC have increased their engagement with Indian companies, particularly with ONGC. Despite their strong ties with Pakistan, both Saudi Arabia and the UAE refrained from criticising India after the repeal of Article 370, which revoked the special status of Kashmir (Khushnam, 2020).
The Indian Expatriate Workforce: A Dominant Presence
The Middle East is home to the highest proportion of foreign residents worldwide. Indians form the largest expatriate community working for the private sector in the region. Approximately, 80% of new workers in the region come from India for various roles ranging from unskilled, low skilled to semi-skilled. In the year 2015, the migration of Indian low-skilled workers to different Middle Eastern countries saw significant numbers, with over 300,000 heading to Saudi Arabia, more than 200,000 to the UAE, 85,000 to Oman, and 59,000 to Qatar. A majority of these migrant workers originate from Indian states such as West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar (MEA, 2016, pp. 210). Middle Eastern countries offer short-term contractual work to ensure a swift turnover of migrants. (Thiollet, 2016). Entry into the Middle Eastern countries is restricted to individuals with a firm job offer and a contract sponsored by an employer. These contracts bind employees to work for a specific period at a predetermined wage level. In return, sponsors are responsible for providing accommodation and food and covering the travel expenses of the migrant workers (Levaillant, 2017).
Challenges Faced by Indian Migrant Workers
A significant number of semi-skilled and unskilled Indian labourers in the Middle Eastern region face severe hardships and are deprived of fundamental labour rights. The conditions for many of these workers have further deteriorated due to the economic downturn linked to the recent decline in global oil prices. A majority of Indian workers employed in the private sector in the Middle Eastern region are subject to the visa sponsorship system, commonly known as kafala. Despite some recent attempts at reform, the kafala system continues to link a foreign worker’s residency authorization to their sponsor. Typically, workers need explicit permission from their sponsor to switch employers or leave the country. This practice has been criticized by the International Labour Organization (ILO) (Pethiyagoda, 2017). Besides infringing upon the fundamental human right of freedom of movement for foreign workers, the kafala system also cultivates a legal framework that lacks essential safeguards for migrant labourers. This environment provides ample opportunities for employers and employment agencies to exploit the system. As an example, sponsors can postpone wage payments, seize passports, and unjustly deport workers. Additionally, authorities frequently fall short of charging and taking legal action against sponsors who violate laws and contractual obligations (HRW, 2016).
Female domestic workers, in particular, employed within family households, encounter a deficiency in legal safeguards that leaves them vulnerable to various forms of mistreatment. These abuses encompass excessive workload, insufficient access to food, confinement against their will, and the infliction of psychological, physical, verbal, and sexual harm (HRW, Middle East Failing to Protect Domestic Workers, 2013).
The Concept of Incipient Diaspora: Legal and Social Ambiguity
Professor Myron Weiner’s concept of an “incipient diaspora” aptly describes the Indian migration and temporary settlement in the Middle East. Professor Myron Weiner (1986) described the Indian Migration and temporary settlement of Indian workers in the Middle East as an act of “Incipient Diaspora”. Weiner says that a relatively sizeable group of foreign workers in industrial or oil-producing economies who are ethically distinct from the host population and are allowed to remain in the host country only to work but are not granted citizenship form an incipient diaspora since they do, after a period, return to the homeland. They live in a state of legal and political ambiguity, economic insecurity and as social outsiders (Jain 2003:102). The incipiency in the diaspora is derived from the fact that the laws about citizenship and naturalisation in Middle Eastern countries are stringent and it is almost impossible for the migrants to obtain a permanent resident status. The work contracts are usually time-bound, and the kafala system and the harsh working conditions usually force migrants to return. This makes migration transitory and circular.
Conclusion
The Indian diaspora contributes to the improvement of India’s reputation and soft power. Indian migrant labourers are widely recognised for their peaceful and tolerant demeanour. According to the MOIA (Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs). Presently, India does not have a comprehensive Diaspora Policy in the It is crucial to address the needs of the migrants as their socioeconomic conditions vary greatly. India should consistently involve diaspora-related issues in all its bilateral negotiations with the Middle East. New Delhi must take the necessary steps to prompt the Middle Eastern States to revise their labour regulations by addressing the challenges encountered by migrant workers due to the Kafala system. India can provide local support through the Indian embassies by properly checking the details of the recruiters and the welfare schemes for the labourers in the host country. These factors taken together, can significantly bolster reforms and give an impetus to India-Middle East ties, ensuring a more balanced and mutually beneficial relationship.
References
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